Management of severe acute heart failure

Abstract

Severe acute heart failure (AHF) patients are class IV patients hospitalized due to dyspnea on worsening chronic heart failure or for acute new-onset heart failure with signs and symptoms of severe lung congestion with pulmonary edema, low output syndrome, or cardiogenic shock. It is characterized at the emergency department as heavy dyspnea, with SpO2 less than 90%, and with physical and psychological stress. © 2008 Springer-Verlag London.