Universals and cultural differences in the causes and structure of happiness: A multilevel review

Abstract

The science of subjective well-being (SWB), including life satisfaction, happiness, and positive feelings, has grown rapidly over the last three decades, but no area has grown more rapidly than our understanding of international and cultural factors as they influence well-being. We now understand that there are some factors, such as extraversion and the meeting of psychosocial needs, that influence subjective well-being around the world, and we also know that there are influences on SWB that are much stronger in some cultures than in others. Importantly, even the structure of SWB-the components and their relationships-has universal and culture-specific aspects. For example, pride and aroused positive emotions differ across cultures in how desirable they are seen to be. We have learned that across culture, some factors, such as income, are more associated with life satisfaction, whereas other factors, such as social support, are more related to positive feelings. Thus, the happiest nations are those that are both wealthy and meet psychosocial needs, while the least happy are poor and do not meet these needs. There is strong evidence that national circumstances, not just individual circumstances, influence well-being. An important area for future research is to determine, across cultures, the outcomes of high well-being.