Hydroxynorketamine: Implications for the NMDA Receptor Hypothesis of Ketamine’s Antidepressant Action

Abstract

The prevailing hypothesis of ketamine’s unique antidepressant effects implicates N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) inhibition-dependent enhancement of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor-mediated transmission, activation of intracellular signalling pathways and increased synaptogenesis. Recently, however, a seminal study by Zanos et al. directly challenged the NMDAR hypothesis of ketamine with the claim that an active ketamine metabolite, (2R,6R)-hydroxynorketamine, devoid of NMDAR binding properties or key side effects of its parent compound, is both necessary and sufficient for ketamine’s antidepressant effects in rodents. However, following these encouraging initial findings, one preclinical study failed to replicate the antidepressant effects of (2R,6R)-hydroxynorketamine (HNK), while others have questioned the metabolite’s contribution to ketamine’s therapeutic effects or argued against rejecting the NMDAR hypothesis of ketamine action. In light of these potentially paradigm-shifting, but highly controversial, findings, this review will summarise and critically evaluate the evidence for and against the NMDA receptor hypothesis of ketamine action, with a particular focus on (2R,6R)-HNK and the implications of its discovery for understanding ketamine’s mechanism of action in depression. Ultimately, uncovering the molecular mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of ketamine and possibly (2R,6R)-HNK, will aid the development of novel and more efficacious antidepressant agents so urgently needed to address a major public health concern, and could hold potential for the treatment of other stress-related psychopathologies, including bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and suicidality.