Ethics in space medicine: Holocaust beginnings, the present, and the future

Abstract

Space medicine began as an extension of aeronautical medicine. As airplanes developed the power and speed to achieve higher altitude, it became apparent that there were substantial challenges to human physiology that became obstacles to safe operation and pilot survival. Research to understand these challenges was conducted in the early 1930s in the United States and Europe. As Europe progressed toward major conflict, Germany’s Third Reich instituted a formal research program in aeronautical medicine. To lead this effort they chose a renowned physician and scientist, Dr. Hubertus Strughold. Dr. Strughold was implicated in experiments during WWII on humans who were detainees of the Third Reich but never convicted of any crimes. At the end of the war, he came to America under Operation Paperclip to work for the US Air Force, where he extended his research from aircraft to spacecraft and coined the term “Aerospace Medicine.” Later he was detailed from the Air Force to the National Aeronautical and Space Agency (NASA). Although Strughold’s role in Nazi human subjects research has raised ethical questions about the origins of NASA’s Space Medicine Program, the US space program has developed into a model civilian agency operating with the highest of ethical standards in science and exploration. As the agency pursues exploration and colonization of the solar system and deep space, new ethical issues will arise, challenging the agency to maintain these high standards.