Teaching and Learning Guide for: Participatory Development: From Epistemological Reversals to Active Citizenship

Abstract

Author's IntroductionMany people across the world are frustrated with the ways in which policy is formed and implemented. They feel shut-out of the process, even in nominally democratic societies, and so are seeking to increase participation in the development process. Participatory development is a term to describe approaches to policy and action that place the marginalised at the centre of decision-making.Participation has become a feature of approaches in both the global South and global North, and is one of the few occasions where learning appears to have travelled from the South to the North. Its universalisation over the past two to three decades reflects a frustration with the ways in which approaches that target the marginalised through ‘formal’ political channels and ‘top down’ policy processes have in fact ignored their views and needs. Through a range of techniques for engaging with marginalised communities, participatory development promises a more engaged form of social transformation. But like many radical approaches that potentially upset established power relations, participatory development has been co-opted and tamed by some organisations so that ‘participation’ is relatively thin and meaningless.The article explores the rise of participatory development and sets out what is meant by participation. It raises some criticisms of ‘mainstream’ participatory development and then sets out a suggested means by which participation could be more meaningful. This centres on accountability and citizenship, although these concepts are not unproblematic either.Author Recommends1. Agarwal, B. (2001). Participatory exclusions, community forestry and gender: an analysis for South Asia and a conceptual framework. World Development 29 (10), pp. 1623–1648. PII: S0305-750X(01)0066-3This is a useful article that sets out a typology of participation, which is used in the Geography Compass article. There are other typologies of participation, but this one is useful in giving it a specific gender slant and looks at the ways in which women are denied participation. As such, it links nicely with Mosse's article given below.2. Brett, E. A. (2003). Participation and accountability in development management. Journal of Development Studies 40 (2), pp. 1–29. London: Frank Cass.This is great article, which argues that any democratic system must be accountable. Brett argues that it does not matter so much if you call it participatory or not so long as those affected can hold power holders to account. He goes on to argue that accountability need not be only through state institutions but also civil society and market-based organisations. The article sets out an agenda that others have recently taken up on social accountability.3. Chambers, R. (1994a). The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisal. World Development 22 (7), pp. 953–969.4. Chambers, R. (1994b). Participatory rural appraisal: analysis and experience. World Development 22 (9), pp. 1253–1268.5. Chambers, R. (1994c). Participatory rural appraisal: challenges, potentials and paradigm. World Development 22 (10), pp. 1437–1454.These three articles by Robert Chambers, the guru of participation, cover much the same ground as his book ‘Whose Reality Counts? Putting the first last’ (1997, London: Intermediate Technology Publications). Although quite old they set out clearly the evolution of participatory rural appraisal (PRA), its main applications and some of the future avenues for research and practice. They are really clearly written and have lots of examples and illustrations.6. Cornwall, A. (2002). Making spaces, changing places: situating participation in development. Institute of Development Studies (IDS) Working Paper No. 170. Brighton, UK: IDS. ISBN: 1 85864 472 0Cornwall works with Robert Chambers at the IDS (see websites below). She is an anthropologist who has theorised participatory development and been instrumental in the move towards embedding it in citizenship concepts. The team at IDS have pioneered the linkages between participation and space, and in this article Cornwall sets out the idea of ‘invited’ and ‘claimed’ spaces of participation and uses Bourdieu to look at concepts of place and social action. It is really well written, clear and alongside the web materials provides a lot of good material for students.7. Fung, A., and Wright, E. O. (2001). Deepening democracy: innovations in empowered participatory governance. Politics and Society 29 (1), pp. 5–41. doi: 10.1177/0032329201029001002This is an introductory article to a special issue on deepening democracy. While they welcome experimental citizenship action, they are clear that it does not lie outside of state agendas but has to link to them to empower the marginalised. As such, it resonates with the citizenship ideas mentioned elsewhere. What is great is that it sees these issues as global insofar as they pertain to ‘Western’ societies as much as those in the global South. The other articles in the special issue are also very useful for deeper consideration and cover Kerala, Brazil, the USA and South Africa.8. Hickey, S., and Mohan, G. (eds) (2004). Participation: from tyranny to transformation? London: Zed Books. ISBN-10: 1842774611; ISBN-13: 978-1842774618The book arose from a conference which was in response to Cooke and Kothari's Participation: The New Tyranny? which argued that participation stifled political development. While broadly agreeing the editors of this follow up collection sought out work on more politicised forms of participation. Much of this, especially the introductory chapter, informs the Geography Compass article's section on citizenship. These ideas are also available in Hickey, S., and Mohan, G. (2005). Relocating participation within a radical politics of development. Development and Change 36 (2), pp. 237–262.9. Kapoor, I. (2005). Participatory development, complicity and desire. Third World Quarterly 26 (8), pp. 1203–1220. doi: 10.1080/01436590500336849Quite a tough read, but has a really useful set of suggestions on how to promote more radical forms of participation. The author is really interesting in his use of postcolonial and psychoanalytical literature and is one of the few people to actually theorise participatory development.10. Mosse, D. (1994). Authority, gender and knowledge: theoretical reflections on the practice of participatory rural appraisal. Development and Change 25, pp. 497–526.This is a ground-breaking article, which was one of the first to critique the practices of PRA. As an anthropologist, Mosse undertook long-term ethnographies on a programme in India, and in the article reflects on the problems of PRA, especially how in ‘open’ group situations women's voices are marginalised.Online Materials1. Power tools for policy influence in natural resource managementhttp://www.policy-powertools.org/This website introduces a range of what they call ‘Power Tools’. They are ‘how-to’ ideas that marginalised people and their allies can use to have a greater positive influence on natural resources policy. A policy tool can be defined as a mechanism for influencing decisions and decision-making, in this case about natural resource management. The essential feature of a tool is that it is transferable, able to be taken from one context and utilised elsewhere. This does not mean that every tool is an ideal blueprint, appropriate to every challenge. Policy tools are instead sets of ideas that can be discovered and developed in one setting and then extracted and adapted to other contexts.2. PLA (Participatory Learning and Action) Noteshttp://www.iied.org/NR/agbioliv/pla_notes/index.htmlParticipatory Learning and Action is the world's leading series on participatory learning and action approaches and methods. The journal provides a forum for all those engaged in participatory work – community workers, activists and researchers – to share their experiences, conceptual reflections and methodological innovations with others. The PLA Notes series is informal and seeks to publish frank accounts, address issues of practical and immediate value, encourage innovation and act as a voice from the field. While recent issues have to be paid for there are free back issues starting from about 3 years back, but they are still very relevant and accessible. Find them at http://www.iied.org/NR/agbioliv/pla_notes/backissues.html#free3. Governance and Social Development Resource Centrehttp://www.gsdrc.org/This is an information portal funded by the UK Department for International Development and has lots of material on the politics of development. Specifically, the Governance and Social Development Resource Centre supports the knowledge needs of the international development community in relation to governance, conflict and social development. In one section, there are good case studies of participatory development and has links to the actual articles since they have acquired copyright clearance. Find them at http://www.gsdrc.org/go/topic-guides/monitoring-and-evaluation/participatory-tools-and-approaches#tools4. Institute of Development Studies Participation Teamhttp://www.ids.ac.uk/ids/participThe Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex has long been a leader in research around participation. Its Participation, Power and Social Change Team explores concepts and methods of ‘participation’ and how they can be used to improve the complex interactions between society and policy. Focusing on research, innovation and learning in rights-based and participatory approaches, they work in partnerships with diverse collaborators from around the world to generate ideas and action for social change.5. Citizenship Development Research Centrehttp://www.drc-citizenship.org/The UK's Department for International Development has funded a number of research centres on development topics. One of these is the Development Research Centre on Citizenship, Participation and Ac