Far-Field Nanoscopy with Conventional Fluorophores: Photostability, Photophysics, and Transient Binding

Abstract

The fascination for lanthanide optical spectroscopy dates back to the 1880s when renowned scientists such as Sir William Crookes, LeCoq de Boisbaudran, Eugène Demarçay or, later, Georges Urbain were using luminescence as an analytical tool to test the purity of their crystallizations and to identify potential new elements. The richness and complexity of lanthanide optical spectra are reflected in an article published in 1937 by J.H. van Vleck: The Puzzle of Rare Earth Spectra in Solids. After this analytical and exploratory period, lanthanide unique optical properties were taken advantage of in optical glasses, filters, and lasers. In the mid-1970s, E. Soini and I. Hemmilä proposed lanthanide luminescent probes for time-resolved immunoassays (Soini and Hemmilä in Clin Chem 25:353–361, 1979) and this has been the starting point of the present numerous bio-applications based on optical properties of lanthanides. In this chapter, we first briefly outline the principles underlying the simplest models used for describing the electronic structure and spectroscopic properties of trivalent lanthanide ions LnIII (4f n ) with special emphasis on luminescence. Since the book is intended for a broad readership within the sciences, we start from scratch defining all quantities used, but we stay at a descriptive level, leaving out detailed mathematical developments. For the latter, the reader is referred to references Liu and Jacquier, Spectroscopic properties of rare earths in optical materials. Tsinghua University Press & Springer, Beijing & Heidelberg, 2005 and Görller-Walrand and Binnemans, Rationalization of crystal field parameters. In: Gschneidner, Eyring (eds) Handbook on the physics and chemistry of rare earths, vol 23. Elsevier BV, Amsterdam, Ch 155, 1996. The second part of the chapter is devoted to practical aspects of lanthanide luminescent probes, both from the point of view of their design and of their potential utility.