How Do Mineral Deposits Form and Transform? A Systematic Approach

Abstract

Formation and transformation of mineral deposits are interactions of geospheres, one including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and asthenosphere and the other involving the mantle and the core of the earth. Complex chemical and thermal interactions between these two geospheres have led to distribution and concentration of elements and even, later modifications, producing the mineral or ore deposits of today. The essential processes involve magmatism, hydrothermal, and sedimentary processes with a strong impact of tectonism and in places, of weathering and erosion. The genetic processes vary in details. The principal ones are outlined below with the principal products in parentheses: (1) Essentially magmatic processes (Ni, Cu, PGE Cr, Fe–Ti); (2) Pegmatitic processes (rare metals, ceramic, and radioactive elements); (3) Essentially magmatic hydrothermal processes (Sn, W, U, Cu, Mo, REE); (4) Essentially amagmatic hydrothermal processes (Cu, Pb–Zn, Au, U); (5) Sedimentary (-diagenetic) processes (Fe, Mn, U, Sn, Ti, monazite, phosphorite, carbonate rocks, rock salt gypsum); (6) Lateritic and non-lateritic residual processes (Fe, Mn, Al, Ni, and clays); (7) Supergene oxidation and enrichment (Cu, Ag, Au, U); (8) Biogeochemical degradation of biomass (peat-lignite-coal, natural gas, and oil).