Embryology of Congenital Malformations

Abstract

Today, the embryology of numerous congenital anomalies in humans is still a matter of speculation. This is due to a number of reasons which include: Misconceptions and/or outdated theories concerning normal and abnormal embryology A shortage of study material (both normal and abnormal embryos) A shortage of explanatory images of embryos and developing embryonic organs Difficulties in the interpretation of serial sections In recent years, a number of animal models had been established which helped to overcome the shortage of both normal and abnormal embryos. However, a general agreement on when, why, and how abnormal development takes place still does not exist. As a result, many typical malformations are still not explained satisfactorily and pediatric surgeons of all specialties are still confused when they are confronted with the background of normal and abnormal embryologic development.