Software Aging Effects on Kubernetes in Container Orchestration Systems for Digital Twin Cloud Infrastructures of Urban Air Mobility

Abstract

It is necessary to develop a vehicle digital twin (DT) for urban air mobility (UAM) that uses an accurate, physics-based emulator to model the statics and dynamics of a vehicle. This is because the use of digital twins in the operation and control of UAM vehicles is essential for the UAM operational digital twin infrastructure (UAM-ODT). There are several issues that need to be addressed in this process: (i) the lack of digital twin engines for the digitalization (twinization) of the dynamics and control of UAM vehicles at the core of UAM-ODT systems; (ii) the lack of back-end system engineering in the development of UAM vehicle DTs; and (iii) the lack of fault-tolerant mechanisms for the DT cloud back-end system to run uninterrupted operations 24/7. On the other hand, software aging and rejuvenation are becoming increasingly important in a variety of computing scenarios as the demand for reliable and available services increases. With the increasing use of containerized systems, there is also a need for an orchestrator to support easy management and reduce operational costs. In this paper, an operational digital twin (ODT) of a typical urban air mobility (UAM) infrastructure is developed on a private cloud system based on Kubernetes using a proposed cloud-in-the-loop simulation approach. To ensure the ODT can provide uninterrupted operational control and services in UAM around the clock, we propose a methodology for investigating software aging in Kubernetes-based containerized clouds. We evaluate the behavior of Kubernetes software using the Nginx and K3S tools while they manage pods in an accelerated lifetime experiment. We continuously execute operations for creating and terminating pods, allowing us to observe the utilization of computing resources (e.g., CPU, memory, and I/O), the performance of the Nginx and K3S environments, and the response time of an application hosted in those environments. In some conditions and for specific metrics, such as virtual memory usage, we observed the effects of software aging, including a memory leak that is not fully cleared when the cluster is stopped. These issues could lead to system performance degradation and eventually compromise the reliability and availability of the system when it crashes due to memory space exhaustion or full utilization of swap space on the hard disk. This study helps with the deployment and maintenance of virtualized environments from the standpoint of system dependability in digital twin computing infrastructures where a large number of services are running under strict continuity requirements.