Cardiorenal syndrome: long road between kidney and heart

Abstract

Almost 200 years ago, the first evidence described by Robert Bright (1836) showed the strong interaction between the kidneys and heart and, since then, the scientific community has dedicated itself to better understanding the mechanisms involved in the kidney–heart relationship, known in recent decades as cardiorenal syndrome (CRS). This syndrome includes a wide clinical variety that affects the kidneys and heart, in an acute or chronic manner. Moreover, it is well established in the literature that the immune system, the sympathetic nervous system, the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone, and the oxidative stress actively play a strong role in the cellular and molecular processes present in CRS. More recently, uremic molecules and epigenetic factors have been also shown to be key mediators in the development of syndrome. The present review intends to present the state of the art regarding CRS and to show the paths known, until now, in the long road between the kidneys and heart.