Gene–environment correlations in the context of parenting and peer relationships

Abstract

Most models of human development highlight the role of environmental experiences in explaining individual differences in socio-emotional and cognitive development (e.g., Bowlby, 1982). This emphasis finds its support in longitudinal studies underlining associations between characteristics of early caregiving environments and later child development (e.g., Bradley & Corwin, 2007; De Wolff & Van IJzendoorn, 1997). However, there is now substantial evidence to suggest that both genetic and environmental factors shape these developmental associations (Turkheimer, 2000). More importantly, these two classes of factors are likely to interact in complex ways, and reciprocally influence each other through gene-environment (G-E) interplay (Plomin, DeFries, & Loehlin, 1977; Scarr & McCartney, 1983).