Kay, John (Born 1948)

Abstract

Knowledge articulation involves the conversion or extraction of tacit knowledge from individuals into explicit and more generic knowledge through collective efforts. We identify three properties of knowledge articulation: (1) it eases diffusion and replication in and between organizations; (2) it is conducive to complex problem-solving; (3) it involves the creation of new knowledge. We posit four challenges for research and practice concerning knowledge articulation: (1) understanding the relation between individual and collective processes; (2) distinguishing between knowledge articulation and knowledge codification; (3) delineating the content and processes of knowledge articulation; (4) explicating the limits of knowledge articulation. In contrast to theories of 10.1057/978-1-137-00772-8_391, which assume creative ideas to be generated ex nihilo, a growing stream of literature argues that all innovations ultimately stem from knowledge brokering: ideas that are well established in one domain diffuse to domains where they are not yet known. Knowledge brokering has been recognized as the root cause of innovation in a variety of literatures, ranging from cognitive research on analogical reasoning to sociological studies on the innovativeness of groups, organizations and communities. As they facilitate the transfer of knowledge across domains, social networks have been identified as a prime source of knowledge brokering. To understand the role, nature and content of knowledge management, this article traces the conceptual basis of knowledge management in terms of the emergence of the knowledge-based view of the firm and shows how, triggered by development of the knowledge-based economy, knowledge management has provided an umbrella for a range of management activities – all linked together by their central focus on knowledge within the organization. A knowledge network is a group of people, entities or organizations which capture, share existing and/or create new knowledge. This can be done, for example, by collecting relevant documents and summarizing them in order to extract new knowledge, by transferring implicit knowledge into new implicit knowledge, by storytelling or the use of metaphors, or by codifying know-how into documents in order to distribute them electronically. Knowledge networks are influenced by their environment, such as the managerial system in which they are acting and the surrounding culture; they conduct knowledge processes such as capturing, sharing and creating knowledge; and they are supported by tools such as information and communication tools as well as meeting time and rooms. Knowledge sourcing is a central activity of organizational learning and has important implications for firm innovation, competitiveness, and survival. We discuss the motivation for knowledge sourcing, the challenges associated with it, and the mechanisms that facilitate it. We suggest that knowledge sourcing is conducted at various levels of the organization and can involve multiple organizational mechanisms. Finally, we highlight its importance to research in international business. Knowledge spillovers enable an actor to access knowledge generated by another without full (or perhaps any) compensation. Knowledge spillovers are important because they are central to economic growth. In addition, they are strategically important to knowledge-intensive firms. Recent improvements in measurement have enabled scholars to report three robust empirical findings about knowledge spillovers: (1) they are geographically localized; (2) they are influenced by inventor mobility; and (3) social networks enable them to overcome geographic distance. Two simple but fundamental questions set knowledge-based strategy apart from other schools of thought in strategy. The first is {‘Why} do firms differ?’ Firms differ not just because they have different activity systems or different resources, but because human beings running the firms envision different futures. The second is {‘Why} do firms exist?’ Firms exist not only to maximize shareholder value, but also to improve the human condition and improve the future for their customers, employees, suppliers and other stakeholders as well as for society at large, including the environment.