Educational Technology & Society 3(2) 2000 ISSN 1436-4522 50 ,QVWUXFWLRQDO���HVLJQDQG7HFKQRORJ\,PSOLFDWLRQVIRU 7UDQVIRUPLQJ���LVWDQFH/HDUQLQJ Maureen Tam Acting Director Teaching and Learning Centre Lingnan University, Tuen Mun Hong Kong, China Tel: +852-26167577 Fax: +852-25725706 mtam@ln.edu.hk ABSTRACT This paper examines the characteristics and value of designed instruction grounded in the constructivist theory. It also attempts to connect the theory to the prevailing technology paradigms to establish an alignment between pedagogical and technological considerations in support of the assumptions arising from constructivism. Distance learning provides a unique context in which to infuse constructivist principles where learners are expected to function as self-motivated, self-directed, interactive, collaborative participants in their learning experiences by virtue of their physical location. Hence, the aim of this paper is to provide a clear link between the theoretical principles of constructivism, the construction of technology- supported learning environments, and the practice of distance education. The questions driving the argument in this paper include: What do constructivist perspectives offer instructional design and practice? What do computing technologies offer? And what do the two afford in combination? In particular, how do the two combine to transform distance learning from a highly industrialized mass production model to one that emphasizes subjective construction of knowledge and meaning derived from individual experiences. Keywords Constructivism, Instructional Design, Technology, Distance Learning. Introduction The paper proceeds in five stages. Firstly, it begins with a basic characterization of constructivism, identifying what is believed to be the central principles in learning and understanding. The philosophical assumptions of constructivism are contrasted alongside objectivism, which holds very different views and approaches to learning and knowing. Secondly, the discussion ensues to identify and elaborate on those instructional principles for the design of a constructivist learning environment. Exemplars of a constructivist learning environment will be identified and used to illustrate the design process that is based on the epistemological frameworks of constructivism. Thirdly, the role of technology is examined for its support in the construction of constructivist learning environments. If aligned, possibilities and capabilities afforded by technology will help to influence how constructivist beliefs about learning and understanding ultimately become operational in any teaching and learning situation. Fourthly, a link is established with distance learning. To that end, this part of the paper is intended to illustrate the infusion of constructivist principles and computing technology in distance learning contexts to cause the transformation of the system from a used-to-be industrial model to a post-industrial one, which is found congruent with the constructivist principles and developments in modern technology. Finally, constructivism is critically appraised to identify some of its problems and limitations imposed on teaching and learning. The debate among theoreticians, researchers, and practitioners is essential to clarifying foundations and assumptions, and promoting understanding of the merits of different perspectives and methods. There is not a single way to conceptualize learning systems. The challenge is to understand and evaluate the worth of different perspectives and methods to guide the design of effective instruction for learners.

51 What is constructivism? Constructivism is a fundamental departure in thought about the nature of knowing, hence of learning and thus of teaching. To facilitate understanding of the constructivist view and its implications, it is compared to a familiar mental model of learning held by many: the objectivist epistemology. Guiding the discussions on constructivism and its implications for teaching and learning are four main questions: 1. What is learning? 2. What is the learning process? 3. What is the teacher���s primary role in the learning process? 4. What can the teacher do to carry out that role? 1. What is learning? The constructivist perspective describes learning as a change in meaning constructed from experience (Newby et al., 1996). Constructivists believe that ���knowledge and truth are constructed by people and do not exist outside the human mind��� (Duffy and Jonassen, 1991:9). This is radically different from what objectivism conceives learning to be. To the objectivists, ���knowledge and truth exist outside the mind of the individual and are therefore objective��� (Runes, 1962: 217). ���Learners are told about the world and are expected to replicate its content and structure in their thinking��� (Jonassen, 1991:6). The role of education in the objectivist view is therefore to help students learn about the real world. It is asserted that there is a particular body of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to a learner. Learning is thus viewed as the acquisition and accumulation of a finite set of skills and facts. Contrary to these notions about learning and knowing is the constructivist���s view of learning being ���personal��� and not purely ���objective��� (Bodner, 1986). Von Glaserfeld (1984) has written ������ learners construct understanding. They do not simply mirror and reflect what they are told or what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information. Constructivism emphasizes the construction of knowledge while objectivism concerns mainly with the object of knowing. It is the fundamental difference about knowledge and learning that departs the two in terms of both philosophy and implications for the design of instruction. 2. What is the learning process? Central to the tenet of constructivism is that learning is an active process. Information may be imposed, but understanding cannot be, for it must come from within. In her Educational Psychology textbook, Woolfolk (1993:485) describes the constructivist view of the learning process as follows: ������. The key idea is that students actively construct their own knowledge: the mind of the student mediates input from the outside world to determine what the student will learn. Learning is active mental work, not passive reception of teaching. During the process of learning, learners may conceive of the external reality somewhat differently, based on their unique set of experiences with the world and their beliefs about them (Jonassen, 1991). However, learners may discuss their understandings with others and thus develop shared understandings (Cognition and Technology Group, 1991). While different learners may arrive at different answers, it is not a matter of ���anything goes��� (Spiro et al., 1991). Learners must be able to justify their position to establish its viability (Cognition and Technology Group, 1991). While the important point is that the learner is central to the learning process, as epitomized by the Piagetian individualistic approach to constructivism, it is the collaboration among learners that makes constructivism not an example of solipsism (Jonassen, 1991). Rather, it encourages the construction of a social context in which collaboration creates a sense of community, and that teachers and students are active participants in the learning process.