Self-Efficacy, Reflective Thinking, and Critical Thinking: A Structural Equation Modeling Study Among Adolescents

Abstract

Students often face challenges in developing critical thinking (CT) in mathematics, largely due to low self-efficacy (SE) and limited reflective thinking (RT), while instructional approaches that integrate both aspects remain underutilized. This study investigates the interrelationships among SE, RT, and mathematical CT in Islamic and state middle schools. Employing a quantitative design, data were obtained from 260 students selected through simple random sampling and analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Validated and reliable instruments were administered to measure SE, RT, and CT. The results indicate that SE exerts a significant influence on RT (β = .68, t = 5.55) and directly enhances mathematical CT (β = 1.12, t = 3.55). RT also contributes significantly to mathematical CT (t = 2.89). The SEM model demonstrates strong fit indices (χ² = 30.88, RMSEA = .034, p = .15), confirming the robustness of the findings. These results highlight SE as both a direct and indirect determinant of CT, mediated through RT. The study underscores the importance of incorporating RT-oriented strategies into mathematics instruction to simultaneously strengthen students’ confidence and foster higher-order CT skills.