Nutrient Release, Leaching, and Agronomic Performance of Additive-Enhanced Biochar-Based Fertilizers: A Global Meta-Analysis

Abstract

Biochar-based fertilizers (BBFs), including formulations enriched with additives, are sustainable alternatives to conventional fertilizers, promoting waste reuse and controlled nutrient release. This study performed a global meta-analysis to evaluate nutrient dynamics (release and leaching in water and soil) and the agronomic performance of additive-enhanced BBFs compared with unfertilized and/or conventionally fertilized controls. Thirty studies were selected, with 264 experimental pairs extracted from the Web of Science and Scopus databases, and analyzed using a random-effects model. The results indicated that BBFs enriched with natural mineral additives promoted an average increase of 204.3% in nutrient release in water (p < 0.001), whereas in soil biotechnological additives showed the greatest increase, with 109.8% (p < 0.001). Leaching was reduced by up to 74.4% with BBFs enhanced with agricultural residue additives and by 46.9% with industrial additives, indicating greater nutrient retention and greater nutrient-use efficiency. In terms of agronomic performance, additive-enhanced BBFs resulted in average increases of 49.3% in plant height, 232.3% in aboveground biomass, 60.8% in root biomass, and 11.2% in grain yield, compared to unfertilized soil. Overall, the effectiveness of BBFs depends on both the type of additive and the application method, with industrial and mineral additives being the most promising for controlled nutrient release and increased crop productivity.