Construction of Adult Japanese Voxel Phantoms with Various Body Sizes and Their Applications to Evaluation of Organ Doses Due to External Photon Irradiation

Abstract

The occurrence time and the contribution level of particle contamination on the wafer in individual steps during plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) operation were investigated. A method was proposed to determine the occurrence time of particle contamination by making use of the capability of thermophoresis to shield the wafer from particle deposition. The level of particle contamination on the wafer was determined by a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the particle behavior in the reactor was observed using a laser light scattering (LLS) technique. The particles were continuously injected into the plasma reactor from the outside. Using this technique, the effect of particle size on the particle behavior can be studied with high certainty. It was found that the particle contamination occurred during the postplasma when the injected particles were trapped in the sheath region below the powered electrode. On the other hand, when the injected particles were not trapped due to a strong inertial effect of particle, the contamination occurred during plasma operation. There is a regime of operation condition in which the lowest level of contamination occurs. Most particles retained their negative charge in the postplasma as shown by their movement and deposition on the wafer in the presence of either a negative or positive dc field. The charge on these particles was determined from particle motion with high certainty using the current experimental technique. © 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.