The evolutionary and developmental origins of empathy: honouring Frans de Waal’s legacy

Abstract

Empathy lies at the heart of Frans de Waal’s rich and influential scientific legacy. Integrating comparative and developmental perspectives, this essay examines the evolutionary and ontogenetic foundations of empathy across great apes and human infants. Based on a lecture I gave in honour of Frans de Waal’s legacy, I highlight evidence for deep continuity in the affective and cognitive processes that support empathy and a sensitivity to others’ emotions, beginning with early-emerging building blocks such as mimicry and emotion contagion. Comparative work with bonobos, chimpanzees and other species reveals that basic affective mechanisms — such as mimicry and contagion — are socially modulated and rooted in long-term, cooperative relationships. Parallel developmental studies across diverse human cultural contexts show that already in their first year of life, human infants exhibit striking emotional responsiveness to others’ states as well as an emerging understanding of others’ needs, a cornerstone of emerging prosociality. Research on maternal care and maternal loss in both apes and humans further demonstrates how early social experiences shape Hominid socio-emotional trajectories, influencing later socio-emotional development. Together, these findings underscore the intertwined evolutionary and developmental processes that scaffold empathy and challenge long-standing assumptions about human exceptionalism. By tracing these continuities, the essay honours de Waal’s enduring insight that understanding our moral and social capacities requires looking both across species and across development.