Immunosensors and Immunoassays to Detect Francisella tularensis and Diagnose Tularemia

Abstract

Francisella tularensis, the causative agent of tularemia, is a highly infectious Category A biothreat agent characterized by an exceptionally low infectious dose and diverse transmission routes. Due to the pathogen’s fastidious growth requirements and the high risk of laboratory-acquired infections, traditional cultivation methods are often protracted and hazardous. Consequently, the development of rapid and sensitive diagnostic tools is paramount. This manuscript provides a comprehensive overview of the current landscape of immunoassays, with a specific focus on the evolution from standard laboratory techniques to advanced biosensors. We detail the critical phases of antigen preparation, including high-pressure homogenization and sonication, and the generation of high-affinity polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies. Furthermore, we evaluate the implementation of novel biosensor-like devices, such as electrochemiluminescence and Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering platforms, designed for point-of-care and field-ready scenarios. By synthesizing recent advancements in nanomaterial-enhanced recognition and microfluidic integration, this review emphasizes the pivotal role of these technologies in achieving early detection and mitigating the impact of both natural outbreaks and potential deliberate misuse of F. tularensis.