Energizing Change: Liquid-Metal-Enabled Nanogenerators for Smart Textiles

Abstract

The integration of smart textiles with energy-harvesting technologies is driving the development of next-generation wearable systems. Among the materials explored, liquid metals (LMs) stand out for their unique combination of metallic conductivity, room-temperature fluidity, deformability, and tunable interfacial chemistry. These properties enable LM-based devices to overcome the limitations of conventional rigid electrodes in piezoelectric and triboelectric nanogenerators (PENGs and TENGs), particularly for textile applications requiring flexibility and conformability. In this review, recent advances in LM-enabled energy systems for smart textiles were explored, beginning with the fundamental physical properties of LMs and the chemical strategies used to functionalize and hybridize them. The article then examines how LMs enhance PENG and TENG performance, highlighting 2D nanosheet synthesis, nanoparticle composites, and flexible or stretchable electrodes, as well as emerging medium-assisted approaches such as gas-driven and thermoacoustic TENGs. Special attention is given to the unique advantages LMs offer for textile integration, including mechanical compliance, stable electrical contact under deformation, and compatibility with fiber and fabric-based architectures. Finally, the review outlines future perspectives and unresolved challenges in scalability, durability, washability, and sustainable integration. By consolidating these advances, this work provides a roadmap for translating LM-based energy harvesters into practical textile applications across fashion, healthcare, soft robotics, and the Internet of Things.