Disparities in women’s health and clinical considerations from a translational science perspective: A narrative review and framework for future directions

Abstract

Background: Sex and gender disparities persist across biomedical research, clinical care, and health policy, despite increasing recognition of sex-specific disease mechanisms and treatment responses. Underrepresentation of women in clinical trials continues to produce male-centric treatment protocols and insufficient data to support precision care. Methods: This narrative review applies a translational science framework to examine recurring and cross-cutting gaps in sex and gender health science. Rather than cataloging all disease areas, the review uses three exemplar domains—mental and neurological conditions, autoimmune disorders, and cardiovascular disease—to illustrate patterns observed across the research-to-policy continuum. Results: Findings reveal persistent issues including underrepresentation of women in research, inadequate sex-disaggregated data, and structural biases that impede equitable evidence development. These challenges appear consistently across basic science, clinical research, guideline development, and health policy translation. Conclusions: To advance equitable, evidence-based care, recommendations include adopting intersectional frameworks, improving sex-disaggregated data practices, increasing investment in sex-based research, and integrating sex and gender health science into medical education. Addressing these gaps through a translational lens is essential to achieving precision medicine that effectively serves all individuals.