Dying to Win: Doping in Sport and the Development of Anti-Doping Policy

Abstract

Preface 9 world sport long plagued by problem of drug use why is it that strategies used to address key issues are ineffective? Need to analyse key players, interests, and contribution to drug free sport - BH does this Chapt 1: describes how evolution of doping is intrinsically linked to sports policy development - doping does not occur in isolation from other factors - seeks out possible explanations and motivations sport not yet faced whether the issue is performance enhancement or health - ME: I can use this Chapt 2: takes historical look at various substances and social and sporting context of misuse that has identified them as not quite the scientific achievement of which society should be proud Definitions should be cornerstone of policy, yet guardians of sports ethics found this a major challenge to their credibility Chapt 3: examines link between awareness of misuse in sport and perceived ergogenic value, revealing nature of misuse to be more sport-specific H argues that if extrinsic reward is incentive then why does drug use take place in recreational sports? - attitudes towards drug us in competitive sport only one aspect - ME: in considering this, he is uniqueChapt 4: explores lack of consensus as part of problem sport has in addressing drug issue - demand reduction and sports testing programmes are worlds apart - anti-drugs strategies are many and with varying effects Chapt 5: definition of doping shown as plausible but not realised - ME: My main point of criticism, glossed over 10 Chapt 6: recent history of anti-doping policy, different organisations achieving different things is examined - political relationship between sport and government most fascinating - progress has been made but not without government intervention Chapt 7: policy harmonisation is the key, though begs question as to whose standards should be adopted - council of europe made greatest impact to achieve this - encompasses legislation and strategies for compliance based on financial support - government support for infrastructure necessary to achieve standards of convention is closely monitored by council Chapt 8: H identifies concern that progress is slow and absent of co-ordination Chapter 1: The Value of Sport 12 "The deliberate association of sport with a classical past, especially through the Olympic Games, continues to provide a rich basis for the assumption of continuity with what many consider to be a time when sport was practised in a purer form and was less tarnished by its current association with excessive commercialism, professionalism, violence and drug abuse." Coubertin & Homer - reflecting the cultural and meaningfulness of sport and games - development of mind and body 13 "Unfortunately, these views of modern and ancient sport are both highly inaccurate" 14 recounts doping examples from recent competition - Olympic Games, Tour de France 17 erythopoietin (EPO) - drug claimed to benefit endurance Sport, government and nationalism 18 "doping has a long history" intention of book is to "identify the major elements of the social, economic and political context within which sport, doping and doping control takes place" - to understand problems facing those who seek useful policy misleading that government involvement in sport is a recent phenomenon 19 most consistent involvement is with school sports 20 governments have moved from being occasionally involved with sports to being integral considers a number of themes that identify government involvement 1. intervention to control aspects of sport 2. concern with health benefits of recreation and sport 3. use sport as means of social integration 4. when there was a need to strengthen the military preparedness of the country 5. use of international sporting success as way of increasing prestige of country 6. contribution that sport makes to economic regeneration (use sport to enhance) 27 Conclusion: illustrates the greater intensity of government involvement in sport - can sports remain effective actors in policy process given this involvement? Sport, business and Money Involvement of government matched only by BUSINESS Partly result of technology (media), marketing Uses example of TV rights to events to illustrate importance 28 sponsorship also big aspect talks about differences between developed and developing countries ability to fund sport "use of drugs is not a problem confined to a particular group of athletes but is a ubiquitous problem in modern commercialized sport" Sport, health and personal glory 30 critical in shaping sport has been association with health and body (gender, size, body image) 32 starts talking about diet, etc, but does not make the link between such methods and doping as being potentially the same 33 Nothing in the conclusion that is significant.Chapter 2: The Evolution of Doping Early examples of drug use 33 "In general, wherever and whenever the outcome of a sporting competition has involved status, money or other property, attempts have been made to seek an advantage through doping" 3rd century BC Greek athetes used mushrooms to improve performance, also dried figs as part of special diet Egyptions used ground rear hooves of Abyssinian ass Roman gladiators reported to use stimulants to overcome fatigue ME: again this is verging on the blurring of diet and doping, which is problematic and demands addressing 19th Century: other kinds of stimulant (strychnine, nitro-glycerine, opium, alcohol and caffeine) mid 19th C: reports of competitive swimmers in Amsterdam using opium-based drug 1869: cycling coaches preparing heroin and cocaine mixtures for riders to increase endurance during continuous 144-hour races. Belgian cyclists alleged to be taking ether-soaked tablets, French took caffeine tablets, whilst British alleged as relying on range of drugs including strychnine, heroin, brandy, and cocaine as well as pure oxygen 34 death resulted in 1886 of Arthur Linton Drug use in the twentieth century "t crucial catalyst for t widespread use of drugs in sport came with t extensive and frequently unregulated experimentation with drugs during the second world war" - amphetamines and steroids especially by military Amphetamines Gradually replaced earlier crude preparations such as strychnine as preferred drug of athletes (especially explosive and endurance events) Throughout 1950s cyclists regarded as main group of athletes using drugs (though also boxing and speed skating) 36 not until series of deaths in 1960s that sports organisations prompted to move from stance of condemnation to one of intervention - Knut Jensen 1960 Danish cyclist Rome Olympic Games 175-km team trial - Tom Simpson 1967 tour de France excess use of methamphetamine (on TV) - Yves Mottin 1968 - Dick Howard Rome Olympics heroin - Billy Bello 1963 heroin 1930s, used for therapeutic (treatment of narcolepsy, Military to overcome fatigue) evidence of use in sport emerged late 1950s (fashionable drug in mid 1960s) 1984 8% of uni students admitted use within previous 12 months (one third of toal using drugs to enhance sports performance) - especially high among football players (1970s biggest concern) - dosages ranged from 5 - 200 miligrams 37 1980s marked high point of abuse as drug replaced by caffeine and steroids and as became detectable "doping has exaggerated certain aspects of particular sports" "rather than changing sport, drug abuse has the effect of exaggerating those elements that have long proved a threat to the integrity of the sport and the delicate balance of attributes that mark out the great spectator and participant sports" Ephedrine and related stimulants 38 Along with pseudoephedrine and phenlypropanolamine mimic effects of amphetamines Stimulants that act on CNS Can be bought over counter, to remedy colds, etc First brought attention in 1972 Munich Olympic Games: US swimmer Rick DeMont tested positive for ephedrine - stripped of Gold Medal for 400 freestyle and disqualified 12 yrs later: Brit-Canadian, Ronald Angus, given life ban by British Judo Federation after found traces (successfully appealed life ban) 40 particularly popular is the combining of drugs Caffeine Long history of social and medical use Until recently was perceived as only a stimulant, has also become used as a diuretic (flush other drugs out of system) Is still on IOC list as a RESTRICTED not banned substance - because of its basis as a diuertic but also because of justification of its social use (a trace might identify its social use) gives examples of its use Blood doping: transfusions and rEPO 41 Blood doping by transfusion = giving athletes transfusions of blood which may be their own or that of a donor. - to increase capacity of blood to transport oxygen to muscles - amount of oxygen available to muscles is determined by quantity of red blood cells especially effective in: stamina sports (long distance) first rumours of use mid 1970s and rife in 1976 Montreal Olympic Games (Finland and East German under suspicion) - details of examples 42 there is currently "no reliable test for the practice" last 10 years, rEPO (recombinant erythropoietin) alternative to blood doping used in cycling Barbituates and benzodiazepines Suppress CNS used in medicine for nearly 100 years 43 Chloral hydrate available 1869 First barbituate derived from barbituric acid (used in clinical medicine 1903) Concern that led to dependencem alternatives sought in sport and medicine In sports, both thought to REDUCE ANXIETY WITHOUT LOSS OF JUDGEMENT OR CO-ORDINATION (control muscle tremor in throwing/shooting/snooker) Likely that use is declining, partly because have been superseded by beta-blockers Beta-blockers Used to treat range of medical conditions (migraine, hypertension, angina, anxiety) Effect on heart rate and blood pressure makes useful in most sports Steadies breathing and reduce hand and arm tremor levels Popular in: snooker, darts, bowls, archery, shooting) 1980s when concern was at worst