Raptors as sentinels: unveiling the environmental and health risks of PFAS contamination

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are persistent environmental contaminants of global concern due to their bioaccumulative and toxic properties. Raptors, as apex predators, are valuable sentinel species for monitoring PFAS contamination because of biomagnification along food chains. This narrative review synthesizes current knowledge on PFAS occurrence, tissue distribution, temporal and spatial trends, and associated health effects in raptors worldwide. Studies consistently demonstrate PFAS ubiquity in raptor tissues (liver, blood, eggs, and feathers), with piscivorous species generally exhibiting higher concentrations than terrestrial ones. Legacy long-chain PFAS (≥C8), particularly PFOS, consistently biomagnify in raptor food webs and often exceed proposed toxicological thresholds. Temporal trends show declining PFOS levels in some regions following regulatory restrictions, though replacement PFAS remain poorly characterized. Tissue-specific patterns reveal eggs and liver as suitable matrices for assessing maternal transfer and long-term accumulation, while blood and feathers enable minimally invasive monitoring. Sublethal effects in raptors, combined with parallels in human epidemiology, underscore the relevance of a One Health approach. Standardized, multi-matrix, long-term biomonitoring programs using raptors and complementary sentinel species are recommended to evaluate regulation effectiveness and inform evidence-based mitigation strategies.