Printing to Fight Antimicrobial Resistance Through Nano/Microstructured Platforms

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance is one of the most pressing global public health threats, responsible for millions of deaths annually. To tackle this issue, additive manufacturing has been increasingly exploited to fabricate structured antimicrobial platforms with precise control over composition, geometry, and release kinetics. This review covers the most relevant approaches across different scales, from dip-pen nanolithography and inkjet printing to 3D and 4D printing, emphasizing the role of nanoscale confinement, microenvironmental control, and interfacial chemistry as key design parameters. Polymeric matrices, metal and metal oxide nanostructures, and theranostic platforms are discussed in relation to their fabrication-dependent properties, including material stability, ageing, and translational challenges. Finally, stimuli-responsive architectures, phototherapeutic strategies, and artificial intelligence-driven design are outlined as emerging tools toward next-generation antimicrobial materials.