Antiretroviral Drugs in African Surface Waters: Prevalence, Analysis, and Potential Remediation

Abstract

The sources, ecotoxicological impact, and potential remediation strategies of antiretroviral drugs (ARVDs) as emerging contaminants in surface waters are reviewed based on recent literature. The occurrence of ARVDs in water bodies raises concern because many communities in Africa depend on rivers for water resources. Southern Africa is a potential hotspot regarding ARVD contamination due to relatively high therapeutic application and detection thereof in water bodies. Efavirenz and nevirapine are the most persistent in effluents and are prevalent in surface water based on environmental concentrations. Whereas the highest concentration of efavirenz reported in Kenya was 12.4 µg L–1, concentrations as high as 119 and 140 µg L–1 have been reported in Zambia and South Africa, respectively. Concentrations of ARVDs ranging from 670 to 34 000 ng L–1 (influents) and 540 to 34 000 ng L–1 (effluents) were determined in wastewater treatment plants in South Africa, compared with Europe, where reported concentrations range from less than limit of detection (LOD) to 32 ng L–1 (influents) and less than LOD to 22 ng L–1 (effluents). The present African-based review suggests the need for comprehensive toxicological and risk assessment of these emerging pollutants in Africa, with the intent of averting environmental hazards and the development of sustainable remediation strategies. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:247–262. © 2021 SETAC.