Wastewater-Based Surveillance of Human Adenoviruses in Italy: Quantification by Digital PCR and Molecular Typing via Nanopore Amplicon Sequencing

Abstract

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) offers valuable insight into viral circulation at the community level. In this study, we combined digital PCR (dPCR) with molecular typing to investigate the prevalence and diversity of human adenoviruses (HAdVs) in untreated wastewater samples collected throughout Italy. HAdV genomes were detected in over 93% of the 168 samples analyzed, with concentrations up to 4.5 × 106 genome copies per liter. For genotypic characterization, we used nested PCR followed by Sanger and Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONTs) long-read sequencing. While Sanger sequencing identified three dominant genotypes (HAdV-A12, HAdV-B3, and HAdV-F41), ONT sequencing provided enhanced resolution, confirming all previously identified types and revealing seven additional genotypes: HAdV-B21, HAdV-C5, HAdV-D45, HAdV-D46, HAdV-D49, HAdV-D83, and HAdV-F40. This comprehensive approach highlights the added value of ONT long-read sequencing in uncovering the genetic complexity of adenoviruses in wastewater, particularly in detecting rare or low abundance types that conventional methods may miss. Our findings highlight the value of integrating quantitative and high-resolution molecular tools in WBE to improve surveillance and better understand the epidemiology of viral pathogens circulating in the human population.