Exploiting triply periodic minimal surfaces with robocasted bioceramics and cements for bone regeneration: Current strategies and opportunities

Abstract

Triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) architectures have generated growing interest for bone regeneration owing to their physicochemical features and associated biological response. Current TPMS scaffolds for bone regeneration are almost exclusively produced via light-based additive manufacturing, limiting the range of applicable materials to sintered bioceramics. In contrast, robocasting offers a broader range of possibilities for modulating scaffold-induced biological responses, such as the use of calcium phosphate cements or the addition of bioactive molecules. Yet, this technology has been underexploited for the production of TPMS scaffolds. In this article, limits to the robocasting of bioceramic- and cement-based TPMS scaffolds are explicitly discussed, with particular emphasis on the digital workflow and hardware constraints. Process-oriented design and toolpath generation strategies for optimizing TPMS robocasting are then presented and validated through a functional proof of concept of digital pipeline and successful application with a model bone cement. Finally, perspectives on the potential benefits of developing integrated digital pipelines and cross-disciplinary collaborations with other fields using robocasting, such as the construction industries, are highlighted.