Pathways and risks of pesticides, microplastics, and emerging contaminants in Ghanaian drinking water: a systematic review

Abstract

This systematic review examines the pathways and risks associated with pesticides, microplastics, and emerging contaminants in drinking water sources in Ghana. The current review employed the PRISMA approach to synthesize peer-reviewed literature published between 2020 and 2025. It identifies the routes, levels, and sources of contaminants, as well as their related public health and environmental impacts. A total of 1,160 articles were initially identified, and 450 were shortlisted after a careful screening process. Of these, 39 articles were selected for final inclusion. The key findings showed contaminants enter water sources through runoff from agricultural activities, industrial effluent, and poor waste disposal, presenting a significant health risk. The quantitative data showed widespread contamination by pesticides (0.5–18 μg/L), microplastics (12–547 particles/L), pharmaceuticals, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), with significant health implications, such as hormonal disruptions, antibiotic resistance, endocrine disorders, neurological problems, carcinogenic effects, and developmental impairment in children. The presence of endocrine-disrupting chemicals and PFAS in 30% of tap water samples further indicates contamination after treatment. These findings highlight for an urgent comprehensive risk assessment, enforced policy action, and area-specific interventions to provide clean drinking water and protect public health in Ghana.