Effects of Exposure to Non-Immersive Virtual Reality on Disgust and Anxiety: A Study on Non-Clinical Samples

Abstract

Non-immersive (screen-based) virtual environments may offer a low-threshold way to elicit clinically relevant emotions while reducing barriers associated with immersive head-mounted displays. This study examined whether a non-immersive virtual scenario simulating a dirty public bathroom is associated with changes in disgust-related and anxiety-related responses in a non-clinical sample of university students, and explored links with obsessive–compulsive tendencies and contamination-related anxiety during the COVID-19 period. A total of 122 participants remotely explored the virtual environment. Before and after exposure, participants completed measures of state anxiety (EMAS-S) and disgust sensitivity (DSR); trait anxiety (EMAS-T), obsessive–compulsive symptoms (OCI-R), fear of COVID-19 (FCS), and engagement/activation during the experience were also assessed. Pre–post differences were tested using paired-sample t-tests, and associations among variables were examined via bivariate correlations. Results indicated a significant post-exposure increase in EMAS-S and DSR scores. Correlational analyses showed robust associations between disgust sensitivity and obsessive–compulsive symptoms, and between trait anxiety and fear of COVID-19. Gender and first-person videogame experience were related to subjective discomfort and activation, with higher levels reported by females and participants without gaming experience. The findings provide preliminary evidence that a remote, screen-based contamination scenario can elicit measurable disgust- and anxiety-related responses and that individual differences may shape subjective impact. However, because the study used a single-group pre–post design without a neutral VR condition or a non-VR control, causal conclusions about the effects of the virtual scenario cannot be drawn.