Emerging Arthropod-Borne Infections in Temperate Regions: Comparative Synthesis Across Mosquitoes, Ticks, Sandflies, and Biting Midges

Abstract

Arthropod-borne diseases are increasingly reported in temperate regions, reflecting the combined effects of climate variability, environmental change, and global movement of humans and animals. This review addresses how different arthropod vectors contribute to disease emergence in these regions and aims to identify shared and vector-specific drivers of transmission. A comparative synthesis of recent literature was conducted focusing on mosquitoes, ticks, sandflies, and biting midges, using a stage-based framework encompassing introduction, establishment and overwintering, seasonal amplification, and spillover to humans or animals. The analysis shows that although climate-related factors commonly facilitate expansion, the biological traits of each vector group strongly influence persistence, transmission dynamics, and detectability. Differences in overwintering capacity, host associations, and dispersal mechanisms result in distinct emergence pathways and surveillance challenges. The findings indicate that early warning indicators and control options are highly context dependent and cannot be applied uniformly across vector groups. This narrative review concludes that effective preparedness in temperate regions requires surveillance and intervention strategies tailored to specific vectors and ecological settings.