Gender and public spending on education in Pakistan: A case study of disaggregated benefit incidence

Abstract

To what extent has government education spending in Pakistan been effective in reducing gender gaps in enrolments? To answer this question, this article reviews the benefit incidence of government education spending. It finds that government subsidies directed towards primary education are pro-poor in all four provinces of Pakistan, but females are at a disadvantage in terms of access to primary education. Government subsidies directed towards higher education are poorly targeted, and the poorest income group receives less than the rich income group: indeed the policies favour those who are better off. Similarly, gender disparity in terms of access to public subsidy is higher at the tertiary level, and the lowest at the primary level, which also reflects poor targeting. Improving access of the poor as well as better female participation involve not simply rearranging the public subsidies but also addressing the constraints that prevent the poor and females from accessing these services.