Environmental and Hydrogeochemical Controls of Spicular Geyserite in Opaline Hot Spring Deposits

Abstract

Siliceous spicules are micro-laminated geyserite deposits, or micro-stromatolites, found around high temperature hot-springs and geysers, associated with intermittent splashes of water. Understanding conditions of formation of these structures will give insights of critical parameters involved in prebiotic environments and early life. We provide a new data set around two geysers from the El Tatio hydrothermal field, Atacama Desert, Chile, a modern analogue for habitable environments on early Earth and Mars. Small spicules (<5 mm diameter) dominate in the near vent areas, whereas larger spicules (>5 mm diameter) form complex columnar structures in the distal vent (>0.3 m distance from the vent). Hydrodynamics, eruption periodicity, and environmental conditions modulate the temperature and cooling patterns around vents. During geyser eruptions, the temperature of water reaching the ground decreases with the distance from the vent. Cooling is stronger during the evenings, due to strong winds and cold air temperature. Rapid water cooling drives supersaturation of amorphous silica, and therefore precipitation rates increase significantly with distance from the vent. Cooling also controls changes in the bacterial communities, from thin filaments <1 μm diameter predominating closer to the vent, to 1–2 μm diameter filaments in the distal vent. Changes in the silica precipitation rate and biota may control the growth of spicules and the transition to columns. Estimated precipitation rates of silica provide a first approximation of the longevity of these structures and the timing for the formation of internal laminations. Microlamination will form in year time-scales closer to the vent, and weeks farther from the vent.