How Fans Stay Connected Without Games: Development of an Instrument to Measure Off-Season Fan Engagement

Abstract

Fan engagement extends beyond the competitive season, yet existing measures largely focus on in-season behaviors. This study conceptualizes off-season fan engagement (OFE) as a distinct form of engagement that sustains fans’ psychological connection to a sport team during periods without live competition. Following a multi-stage scale development procedure, we developed and validated a measure of OFE. Qualitative online focus groups were conducted to explore off-season fan behaviors, and an initial item pool was generated and refined through expert evaluation. Rasch model analysis (n = 211) supported appropriate item functioning and response category performance. Confirmatory factor analysis (n = 244) validated a three-dimensional structure, demonstrating strong reliability as well as convergent and discriminant validity. A subsequent validation test (n = 257) provided additional support for criterion-related validity through positive associations between OFE dimensions and team identification. The findings highlight the unique processes underlying off-season fan engagement and introduce a psychometrically sound instrument for examining and enhancing fan engagement beyond the competition season.