Sustainability of bread from ancient wheat: environmental impact and economic assessment in organic and conventional supply chains

Abstract

This study assesses the environmental and economic sustainability of bread production chain using an ancient soft wheat (var. Verna), cultivated under conventional and organic farming systems. A Life Cycle Assessment from wheat cultivation through baking to bread production was conducted using the CML 2001 method, alongside an economic analysis covering production, milling, and baking stages. Results revealed that the organic system, despite yielding 45% less grain than conventional (1,524 vs. 2,815 kg ha−¹), exhibited lower environmental impacts in key categories per kg of bread: global warming (0.95 vs. 1.47 kg CO₂eq), freshwater ecotoxicity (0.02 vs. 0.06 kg 1,4-DBeq), and eutrophication (0.01E-1 vs. 0.04E-1 kg PO₄eq). The processing phase–particularly baking–accounted for the largest share of impacts across both farming systems (>70% of greenhouse gas emissions). Economically, organic bread production costs were 11% higher (5.00–5.20 € kg−1 vs. 4.40–4.60 € kg−1), with the milling stage showing a > 100% cost increase in organic due to smaller scale and certification requirements. Despite modest profit margins, especially at the farm level, European Union subsidies contribute to maintaining the viability of the organic model. Findings highlight the importance of energy-efficient processing and targeted agronomic strategies to enhance the sustainability of traditional cereal-based food systems.