Adolescent Control Belief Profiles: Gender Differences and the Effects of Psychological Adjustment on Their Transformation

Abstract

Introduction: Adolescents' beliefs about the relationship between personal abilities and effort exhibit complex and divergent patterns, with previous studies highlighting significant gender differences in these belief systems. However, the underlying structure of control beliefs (including ability and effort beliefs) remains poorly understood, as well as how distinct belief patterns are associated with psychological adjustment. To address this gap, this study investigates the configuration of adolescents' beliefs about ability and effort and examines their associations with adaptive outcomes. Methods: In total, 10,205 Chinese adolescents (61% male; Mage = 16.56 years, SDage = 0.84) completed the ability and effort belief subscales of the Chinese version of the Control, Agency, and Means-ends Interview (CAMI), along with the Subjective Health Complaints questionnaire and Satisfaction with Life Scale, assessing control beliefs, subjective health, and life satisfaction, respectively. Participants were assessed longitudinally at three time points (March–April 2017, 2018, and 2019) at 1-year intervals. Results: Latent profile analysis identified three control belief profiles among adolescents: moderate, above average, and high control. The high control group (characterized by strong ability and effort beliefs) showed optimal psychological adjustment. Longitudinal analyses revealed that baseline psychological adjustment significantly predicted upward transitions among profiles. Notably, male adolescents showed a greater representation of adaptive profiles and more upward transitions. Conclusions: These results highlight the heterogeneity of control beliefs and the nuanced association between control beliefs and psychological adjustment. Findings suggest that school interventions should target effort-ability belief integration, particularly for female adolescents.