Effects of hypoxic training interventions on cardiometabolic health of adults with overweight and obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract

Obesity rates have surpassed underweight globally, increasing the burden of cardiometabolic complications on healthcare systems. Hypoxic training has emerged as a potential intervention to improve cardiometabolic health in adults with obesity, but evidence remains inconclusive. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated whether hypoxic training is more effective than normoxic training in this context. A systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library (up to June 2025) identified randomised controlled trials comparing hypoxic and normoxic training in adults with overweight or obesity. Outcomes included glucose homeostasis, lipid profile, and blood pressure. Subgroup, moderation, and sensitivity analyses were also conducted to explore sources of heterogeneity and assess the robustness of findings. Of 1815 studies screened, 9 (278 participants) met the criteria. Meta-analysis results demonstrated no significant differences between hypoxic and normoxic training for fasting glucose (p = 0.118) or fasting insulin (p = 0.415), with substantial heterogeneity observed across studies (I2 = 60%–77%). Similarly, lipid profile markers and blood pressure showed no significant between-group differences (all p > 0.05), also with moderate to high heterogeneity. Subgroup and moderation analyses partially explained this variability, suggesting greater fasting glucose reductions with shorter and lower-intensity hypoxic interventions. Hypoxic training did not outperform normoxic training in improving cardiometabolic outcomes. However, the considerable variability in intervention duration, hypoxic dose, and exercise intensity across studies limits the certainty of these findings. Well-designed, adequately powered trials are needed to determine whether specific hypoxic training protocols or participant characteristics may modulate efficacy in adults with overweight or obesity.