Transcription Factor-Based Differentiation of Pluripotent Stem Cells: Overcoming the Traps of Random Neuronal Fate

Abstract

Developing robust methods to differentiate pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) into specific neuronal subtypes is crucial for advancing neuroscience research, including disease modelling and regenerative medicine. Research in this area has primarily focused on generating and studying excitatory neurons, often in co-culture with primary astrocytes to support maturation. Due to the shared ectodermal lineage of these cell types, any mesoderm derived cells, such as microglia, are absent using traditional methods of culture. To more accurately model the intricate complexity of the brain and its normal neuronal physiology, it is important to incorporate other critical neural subtypes, such as inhibitory interneurons and various glial cells. This review highlights recent progress in using transcription factor-based in vitro differentiation strategies to generate these diverse neural populations. A major advantage of this approach is the ability to rapidly produce highly specific cell types in a controlled manner, allowing for the precise seeding of cells at defined anatomical and physiological ratios. This controlled methodology enables the creation of more accurate and reproducible in vitro models, including two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) cultures and organoids, thereby moving beyond the limitations of random differentiation from neuronal progenitor cells. Despite these advances, key challenges remain, including reproducibility between pluripotent stem cell lines, off-target transcriptional effects of exogenous factors, and incomplete phenotypic maturation of derived cells. Addressing these constraints is essential for translating transcription factor-based approaches into robust and clinically relevant neural models.