Prey of wolves in the great lakes region

Abstract

Wolves (Canis lupus) were abundant in the Great Lakes region just prior to early European settlement (1800 1850). The subsequent extirpation of wolves and most of their large prey from much of this region is just one of the many threats humans have posed to North American wildlife by exploitation and indifference. To understand and learn from the ongoing recovery of wolves in the Great Lakes region (for our purposes here, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan) and the historic declining trend that preceded it (Erb and DonCarlos this volume; Wydeven et al. this volume; Beyer et al. this volume) requires consideration of their primary prey, both historically and today. Because the nutrition afforded by food is essential to survival, reproductive success, and population persistence, both for wild animals and humans, it is not difficult to comprehend how during those early times, and still today for some, ungulate prey species are often at the center of the conflict between wolves and humans. History has taught us that it was not predation by wolves that diminished the diversity and abundance of ungulate species in the Great Lakes region, but rather the human appetite for ungulates, and unfortunately for wolves and their prey, the unprecedented drive to satisfy it. On the other hand, humans have a great capacity for conservation when that is their true intention. However, the success of conservation efforts also relies largely on species-specific biology, in this case, of wolves and their prey. Wolves are adaptable, opportunistic predators, but the species that serve as prey for them in the Great Lakes region and elsewhere has depended largely on their size, abundance, and how catchable they are (Peterson and Ciucci 2003) . Consequently, the relative contributions of primary and secondary prey to the diets of wolves of the Great Lakes region, to their individual health and welfare, and the long-term persistence of their populations have changed historically, and continue to vary seasonally, annually, and across the landscape. We begin this chapter with a brief description of the historic (1800s) trends in distribution and relative abundance of the ungulates that were likely most important in the multi-prey system of the wolves of the Great Lakes region. Our major focus, however, is the more recent trends of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ), the primary prey of wolves in a single-ungulate prey system that has persisted throughout the twentieth century and during their recent ongoing recovery. We discuss specific aspects of the ecology of deer that have enabled their populations to thrive despite relatively heavy exploitation by humans, increasing numbers of wolves, and a concomitant expansion of the geographic range of wolves. Our discussion is based upon management efforts and data generated from studies of coexisting white-tailed deer and wolves in the Great Lakes region.