Emission inventory development for spatiotemporal release of vanadium from anthropogenic sources in China

Abstract

Anthropogenic activities are the major contributor to vanadium pollution in surficial environment, but quantitative assessment of anthropogenic vanadium emission across environmental receptors remains scarce. This study develops a nationwide vanadium emission inventory in China for 2015–2019, covering five major anthropogenic sources: coal combustion, stationary oil burning, transportation, industrial production, and waste handling. A cumulative flux model reveals emissions of 211 095, 3725, and 0.1 t of vanadium into the atmosphere, soil, and water during 2015–2019, respectively, highlighting the atmosphere as the primary vanadium receptor. Coal combustion (46.7 %) and stationary oil burning (40.1 %) are the largest vanadium contributors. The emission pattern is mainly shaped by regional activity levels, with Shandong, Liaoning, Hebei, and Guangdong contributing 35.8 % of national inventories. Shanxi and Inner Mongolia, designated as energy-producing bases, dominate coal-combustion-related emission. Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei achieves significant emission reductions due to coal restriction policies and adoption of cleaner energy and an advanced end-of-pipe system. In economically developed coastal regions, coal consumption has decreased, while oil consumption makes a greater contribution due to industrial modernization. Moreover, steelmaking operations account for 88.2 % emission in industrial production, and this continues to increase nationwide. Emissions induced by vanadium mining show remarkable spatial heterogeneity, with 66.1 % of output in southwestern China. Inventory uncertainties are driven by insufficiently resolved activity data, poorly characterized emission factors, and variability in vanadium content in raw materials, particularly in coal combustion, transportation, and waste disposal sectors. These findings underscore the atmosphere as the main vanadium receptor and identify the primary contributors, which is helpful to develop targeted mitigation strategies.