Maladjustment in children with incarcerated fathers: The role of attachment relationships and maternal depression

Abstract

Objective: This study explored risk and protective factors at individual and family levels for understanding maladjustment in sons and daughters of incarcerated fathers. Background: Family researchers have emphasized fathers' contribution to their children's adaptation. Yet, little research has examined whether paternal absence due to imprisonment poses unique risks for sons' and daughters' adjustment difficulties beyond those experienced by other high-adversity families. Method: Participants were 82 child–mother dyads including children ages 9–12 years (M = 9.66 years, SD = 1.33; 43 boys = 52%), divided into two groups: 41 with and 41 without incarcerated fathers. The study measured protective factors (secure attachment with fathers/mothers), risk (maternal depression), and maladjustment (children's depression and four aggression subscales). Results: Significant group differences emerged on all study variables. Sex differences during paternal imprisonment showed girls' greater vulnerability to depression and boys' higher aggressive behavior. Regression analyses demonstrated significant risk posed by maternal depression, alongside protection offered by attachment with fathers and mothers, in explaining incarcerated fathers' children's maladjustment. Conclusion: Children of incarcerated fathers showed lower protective factors (attachment with parents) and higher risk factors (maternal depression) than children from underprivileged families without incarcerated fathers, demonstrating gender-specific maladjustment features. Implications: Protective and risk factors hold possibly distinct and complementary roles, suggesting educational or family interventions focused on improving parent–child interactions and parenting practices for children with incarcerated fathers.