Application of a Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Approach to Predict Theophylline Pharmacokinetics Using Virtual Non-Pregnant, Pregnant, Fetal, Breast-Feeding, and Neonatal Populations

Abstract

Perinatal pharmacology is influenced by a myriad of physiological variables that are changing dynamically. The influence of these covariates has not been assessed systemically. The objective of this work was to use theophylline as a model drug and to predict its pharmacokinetics before, during (including prediction of the umbilical cord level), and after pregnancy as well as in milk (after single and multiple doses) and in neonates using a physiological-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model. Neonatal theophylline exposure from milk consumption was projected in both normal term and preterm subjects. Predicted infant daily doses were calculated using theophylline average and maximum concentration in the milk as well as an estimate of milk consumption. Predicted concentrations and parameters from the PBPK model were compared to the observed data. PBPK predicted theophylline concentrations in non-pregnant and pregnant populations at different gestational weeks were within 2-fold of the observations and the observed concentrations fell within the 5th−95th prediction interval from the PBPK simulations. The PBPK model predicted an average cord-to-maternal plasma ratio of 1.0, which also agrees well with experimental observations. Predicted postpartum theophylline concentration profiles in milk were also in good agreement with observations with a predicted milk-to-plasma ratio of 0.68. For an infant of 2 kg consuming 150 ml of milk per day, the lactation model predicted a relative infant dose (RID) of 12 and 17% using predicted average (Cavg,ss) and maximum (Cmax,ss) concentration in milk at steady state. The maximum RID of 17% corresponds to an absolute infant daily dose of 1.4 ± 0.5 mg/kg/day. This dose, when administered as 0.233 mg/kg every 4 h, to resemble breastfeeding frequency, resulted in plasma concentrations as high as 3.9 (1.9–6.8) mg/L and 2.8 (1.3–5.3) (5th−95th percentiles) on day 7 in preterm (32 GW) and full-term neonatal populations.