Time-course effects of cognitively engaging physical activity on executive function and self-control in younger school-aged children: a randomized controlled trial

Abstract

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the time-course effects of cognitively engaging physical activity (CEPA) on executive function (EF) and self-control in younger school-aged children (ages 8–10 years) exploring the differential impacts and temporal dynamics of the intervention. Methods: Using a cluster randomized controlled trial design, 203 younger school-aged children (age = 8.9 ± 0.67, male 54.7%, female 45.3%) were randomly allocated into either an experimental group receiving CEPA or a control group receiving the traditional physical education curriculum. The intervention lasted 10 weeks, occurring three times per week, 45 min per session, structured according to a “graded cognitive load” principle, progressively increasing cognitive complexity and challenges. Assessments of EF (inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility) and self-control (social interaction, emotional experience, learning behaviors, daily habits) were conducted at baseline, immediately post-intervention, and at a three-month follow-up. Linear mixed-effects models were used to account for the clustered study design. Results: Linear mixed-effects models revealed significant time-by-group interaction effects for executive function components: inhibitory control (p = 0.020, ICC = 0.057) and working memory (p = 0.002, ICC = 0.054), with cognitive flexibility showing a trend toward significance (p = 0.077, ICC = 0.000). A significant interaction effect was also observed for the total self-control score (p < 0.001, ICC = 0.040). The experimental group demonstrated significant improvements in executive function, with working memory showing substantial immediate gains, and inhibitory control exhibiting strong retention. Regarding self-control dimensions, the most pronounced improvements occurred in social interaction (p < 0.001, ICC = 0.000) and learning behavior (p < 0.001, ICC = 0.072). Overall, intervention effects displayed a nonlinear time-course, characterized by rapid improvements during the intervention phase, slight attenuation at follow-up but remaining significantly above baseline levels, whereas no significant changes were observed in the Traditional Physical Education Curriculum control group. Conclusion: This study systematically confirms the immediate and lasting effectiveness of CEPA on younger school-aged children’s executive function and self-control, highlighting the differential effects across cognitive and behavioral domains and their nonlinear temporal characteristics. These findings underscore the value of integrating cognitive engagement elements into the school-based physical education curriculum, offering robust empirical support for educational practices and policy decisions aimed at comprehensive cognitive and behavioral development among children.