Concern for Animals among Hunter-Gatherers

Abstract

This study examined the degree to which hunter-gatherers exhibited concern for animals. Six types of concern (sympathy, consequential, identity-based, respectful, protective, and indifference) were assessed in twenty-eight hunting-gathering groups from around the world using eHRAF World Cultures. Findings demonstrated that sympathy for animal agents was low, and indifference was high. High levels of consequential concern and moderate levels of identity and respectful concern were evident. Protective concern was found in about a third of the groups. Higher levels of concern were experienced when the animals were perceived as either pseudo-humans or pseudo-spirits. The transition from hunter-gatherer to agro-industrial lifestyle has led to fewer interactions and less overall concern for animals, but it has not produced a decrease in sympathy for animal agents, which was already relatively low among foragers. These findings lend support to the theory that humans did not evolve to experience high levels of sympathetic concern for animals as animal agents, and it helps to explain the widespread present exploitation of animals. It also demonstrates that concern can and does arise when animals take on pseudo-human agency.