Exploring treated wastewater reuse as an alternative option to cope with water scarcity: comparative review in Tunisia and Jordan

Abstract

This review assessed two cross-cutting layers integrating the impacts of climate change and water availability, with five dimensions: governance, technical performance, environmental and health aspects, social acceptance, and economic feasibility. The analysis aimed to evaluate their influence on treated wastewater (TWW) reuse in Tunisia and Jordan. Although Tunisia produces 293 Mm 3/year of TWW and operates 127 wastewater treatment plants, only 3.4% (10.0 Mm 3/year) is reused, whereas Jordan achieves a higher reuse rate of 90% (178.2 Mm 3/year), supplying 98.4% of irrigation water in the Jordan Valley. This difference is attributed to variability in treatment technologies, quality compliance with standards, and institutional regimes. Jordan's application of tertiary treatment and its adherence to the JS 893/2022 standard enabled a higher reuse rate. In contrast, Tunisia still relies heavily on secondary treatment (77.2%) with limited tertiary treatment coverage, and it is under NT 106.03/1989 application for agricultural reuse. Tunisian farmers exhibited a greater level of acceptability, but lower institutional trust than their Jordanian counterparts. Financial advantages, regulatory coherence, and awareness campaigns are the major factors influencing farmer acceptance. The framework clarifies why TWW reuse adoption varies between both countries, highlighting the importance of a practical strategy for addressing long-term water security and agricultural development.