Self-Assembly Interactions in Magnetite-Coated Cellulose Nanocrystals: Implications for Magnetic Hyperthermia Applications

Abstract

Magnetic cellulose nanocrystal (MCNC) nanocomposites are promising sustainable and biocompatible platforms for magnetic hyperthermia; however, the molecular mechanisms governing Fe3O4 adsorption and deposition onto CNCs remain poorly understood. Here, sulfated (S-CNC) and TEMPO-oxidized CNCs (T-CNC) were used to prepare nanocomposites at 1:2 and 1:4 CNC:Fe3O4 mass ratios, enabling a systematic evaluation of how surface chemistry and nanoparticle loading dictate interfacial interactions and magneto-colloidal behavior. Bare magnetite nanoparticles were 21 ± 5 nm by TEM but grew to 144 ± 18 in the DLS measurement at pH 7. The S-CNC nanocomposites had hydrodynamic sizes between 144 and 210 nm, not much larger than the 140 nm long CNC rods, suggesting an enhanced dispersion stability compared to Fe3O4 alone. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy combined with density functional theory revealed that −OH and −COOH groups drive electrostatic adsorption with charge transfer from Fe3O4 to the CNC surface, while T-CNCs showed more favorable adsorption energies and evidence of covalent Fe–O bonding. Vibrating sample magnetometry demonstrated superparamagnetic behavior for all samples, with S-CNC/Fe3O4 1:4 and 1:2 displaying saturation magnetizations of 78 and 77 emu/g-Fe3O4, close to the 83 emu/g of bare magnetite. The T-CNC composites showed lower (60 and 66 emu/g-Fe3O4) saturation magnetizations. Zero-field-cooled/field-cooled measurements resulted in a blocking temperature of 112 K for all samples, except T-CNC/Fe3O4 1:2 (100 K). Magnetic hyperthermia studies revealed that specific absorption rate (SAR) increased with field strength and Fe3O4 content; however, S-CNC/Fe3O4 (1:2) achieved the highest intrinsic SAR per gram of Fe3O4 (649 W/g-Fe3O4) likely due to its anisotropy and fast magnetic relaxation. Cytotoxicity assays confirmed that all nanocomposites were nontoxic toward mammalian cells. These results establish quantitative structure–property relationships between CNC surface chemistry, interfacial bonding mechanisms, and magnetic heating performance, providing a foundation for rational design of biocompatible magnetic nanocomposites for hyperthermia and related applications.