Augmented reality in engineering education: a validated adoption framework for sustainable implementation

Abstract

Introduction – Augmented reality (AR) is increasingly used in engineering education to support immersive visualization and interactive learning, particularly for concepts that require spatial reasoning and interpretation of complex structures. However, research remains dominated by single-course prototypes and isolated implementations, providing limited evidence on the institutional and human factors required for sustainable, curriculum-level adoption. This study develops and validates an adoption framework to guide strategic implementation of AR in engineering education. Methods – Using a mixed-methods design, we first conducted semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders (educators, students, and technology vendors) to elicit adoption enablers, motivators, barriers, and institutional actions. These insights informed a survey of engineering educators and students in UAE universities (N = 151; 101 students, 50 educators). The framework was validated using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), and the Relative Importance Index (RII). Results – Results show that institutional support, faculty training, and awareness are the strongest enabling conditions, while technical limitations and resource constraints are the primary barriers. Perceived instructional value, particularly enhanced visualization, improved learning outcomes, and increased student engagement, significantly strengthens stakeholders’ acceptance of AR integration. The final measurement model demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity after removing low-loading items (RMSEA ≈ 0.065; GFI ≈ 0.802; AGFI ≈ 0.754). Discussion – The study contributes a validated, decision-oriented adoption framework that helps higher education leaders move from pilot deployments to sustainable implementation of AR through aligned policy, capability development, and resource planning.