Leveraging the Tumor Microenvironment as a Target for Cancer Therapeutics: A Review of Emerging Opportunities †

Abstract

Cancer has remained one of the leading causes of death worldwide throughout history despite significant advancements in drug development, radiation therapy, and surgery. Traditional chemotherapeutic small molecules are often hindered by narrow therapeutic indices and limited specificity, leading to suboptimal clinical outcomes. On the other hand, more advanced approaches, such as antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs), frequently encounter obstacles, including poor tumor penetration and prohibitive production costs. The tumor-forming and metastatic capacity of cancer further challenges currently available cancer therapies by creating a biochemical milieu known as the tumor microenvironment (TME). Although solid tumor development presents significant obstacles, it also opens new avenues for innovative therapeutic approaches. It is well-documented that as tumors grow beyond 1–2 mm3 in size, they undergo profound changes in their microenvironment, including alterations in oxygen levels, pH, enzymatic activity, surface antigen expression, and the cellular composition of the stroma. These changes create unique opportunities that can be exploited to develop novel and innovative therapeutics. Currently, numerous ADCs, small-molecule–drug conjugates (SMDCs), and prodrugs are being developed to target specific aspects of these microenvironmental changes. In this review, we explore five TME parameters in detail, with a focus on their relevance to specific cancer types, phenotypic identifiers, and preferred methods of therapeutic targeting. Additionally, we examine the chemical moieties available to target these changes, providing a framework for design strategies that exploit the dynamics of the tumor microenvironment.