Subsurface Temperature Distributions Constrain Groundwater Flow in Salar Marginal Environments

Abstract

Interactions between surface water and groundwater in arid regions regulate their response to climate and human impacts. In the salar systems of the Altiplano-Puna plateau (Bolivia, Chile, Argentina), understanding how surface waters connect to groundwater is crucial for accurate modeling and assessment. This study introduces new data and analysis using subsurface thermal profiles and modeling to identify flow patterns and possible surface water links. We document, to our knowledge, for the first time in the literature, deep-seated cooling of the subsurface caused by extreme evaporation rates. The subsurface is cooled by 4–5 degrees Celsius below the mean annual air temperature to depths greater than 50 m, even though groundwater inflow waters are elevated by 10 degrees °C due to geothermal heating. Three thermal zones are observed along the southern edge of Salar de Atacama, with temperature dropping from 28 °C to about 12 °C over 2.5 km. A 2D numerical model of groundwater and heat flow was developed to test various hydrological scenarios and understand the factors controlling the thermal regime. Two flow scenarios at the southern margin were examined: a diffuse flow model with uniform flow and flux to the surface and a focused flow model with preferential discharge at a topographic slope break. Results indicate that the focused flow scenario matches thermal data, with warm inflow water discharging into a transition zone between freshwater and brine, cooling through evaporation, re-infiltration, and surface flow, then re-emerging near lagoons at the halite nucleus margin. This research offers valuable insights into the groundwater hydraulics in the Salar de Atacama and can aid in monitoring environmental changes causally linked to lithium mining and upgradient freshwater extraction.