When, Where, and What were Janggala and Kadiri?: Delimiting periods and territories in the early history of Java

Abstract

Early Javanese history entered a new phase following Airlangga’s partition of his kingdom into Janggala and Kadiri, spanning 1052–1222 CE. The historiography of these two kingdoms remains largely obscure, owing to persistent confusions with regard to their duration, territorial extent, and designations. We revisit the work of earlier scholars and seek to establish a more definite understanding of when these kingdoms are visible in the historical record, with what political status, and where they were situated. To this end, we first explore the epigraphical evidence for the development of Janggala and Kadiri prior to, during, and after their formation as kingdoms. We then proceed to examine the historiography of Janggala and Kadiri from the colonial era to the present day. Finally, we review how archaeologists and art historians have used the notion of a ‘Kadiri period’ in their chronological frameworks. The article aims to represent the state of the art in epigraphical and historical scholarship on an important period in the early history of Java, concludes with appendices listing inscriptions that can be positively attributed to, or are suspected to have been issued by the kings of Kadiri as well as contemporaneous inscriptions not associated with Kadiri.