Oppositional defiant disorder: A review of neurobiological and environmental correlates, comorbidities, treatment and prognosis

Abstract

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is an independent diagnostic entity but it is frequently studied in conjunction with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or +Conduct Disorder (CD). The purpose of this paper is to review the extant evidence, through the PubMed database, on the neurobiological correlates of oppositional defiant disorder and also describe the familiar and school functioning, comorbidities, prognosis and therapeutic options for oppositional defiant disorder. Evidence of hormonal, genetic and neurofunctional findings in oppositional defiant disorder, correlation with the family, school relations and performance, and the association with mood and anxiety and disruptive disorders are described. The risk of an evolution to conduct disorder and of persistence of the oppositional defiant disorder symptoms is depicted. A review of the effect of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and medication is presented. Analysis of the available evidence shows that the impact of oppositional defiant disorder should not be ignored and it should be properly addressed. The effect of treatment for oppositional defiant disorder on the long-term outcome of patients still needs to be addressed.