Automation Systems in Pb Analysis: A Review on Environmental Water and Biological Samples

Abstract

Lead (Pb) is one of the most relevant contaminants due to its high toxicity, even at low concentrations. The growing need for research about real-time Pb analysis in the field has driven advancements in portable, sensitive, and automated analytical methodologies. These innovations are crucial for taking proactive measures against the impacts of Pb pollution on ecosystems and public health. Flow analysis techniques have proven to be very effective in automating procedures for isolating and preconcentrating Pb in surface water and biological samples. Such automation boosts sample throughput and reduces processing time and reagent consumption, aligning with the green chemistry principles by lowering costs and minimizing waste. This review covers 31 recent automated analytical methodologies employing flow analysis techniques such as FIA, SIA, MSFIA, and LOV, emphasizing the trend toward portability and miniaturization, which facilitates in-situ analysis. Additionally, this review examines the pretreatment methods and detection systems used, highlighting the analytical parameters of each technique. The methodologies discussed demonstrate the capability to process up to 55 samples per hour accurately. Limits of quantification as low as 0.014 µg L−1 are reported, enabling environmental monitoring that effectively detects Pb concentrations below the WHO and EPA drinking water reference values of 10 µg L−1 and 15 µg L−1, respectively.